THE NATURE OF GROUPS
When the concept is applied to the study of organizational behavior, the focus is on the dynamics of members of formal or informal work groups and, now, teams in the organization.
The popularity of work groups and teams is soaring. Although they were first used in corporate giants such as Toyota,, Motorola, General Mills, and General Electric, recent surveys indicate that more than half of American manufacturers now use teams and that they are being widely used in the service sector as well. Yet, as with many other areas of organizational behavior, the study and aplicat8on of groups is undergoing considerable controversy and change. For example, in a commentary about the status of groups in the field of organizational behavior, Alderfer noted:
Groups and group dynamics are a little like the weather— something that nearly everyone talks about and only a few do anything about.
The term group can be defined in a number of different ways, depending on the perspective that is taken. A comprehensive definition would say that if a group exists in an organization, its members:
Are motivated to join
Perceive the group as a unified unit of interaction people
Contribute in various amounts to the group processes (that is, some people contribute more time or energy to the group than do others)
Reach agreements and have disagreements through various forms of interaction.
Although Kurt Levin popularized the term in the 1930s, through the years different connotations have been attached to it. One normative view is that group dynamics describes how a group should be organized and conducted. Democratic leadership, member participation, and overall cooperation are stressed. Another view of group dynamics is that is consists of a set of techniques. Here, role playing, brainstorming, buzz groups, leaderless groups, group therapy, sensitivity training, team building, transactional analysis, and the Johari window are traditionally equated with group dynamics, as are the emerging self-managed teams. A third view is the closest to Lewin’s original conception. Group dynamics is viewed from the perspective of the internal nature of groups, how they form, their structure and processed, and how they function and affect individual members, other groups, and the organization.
DEVELOPMENT OF GROUP
1. Forming: this initial stage is marked by uncertainty and even confusion. Group members are not sure about the purpose, structure, task, or leadership of the group.
2. Storming. This stage of development, as indicated by the term, is characterized by conflict and confrontation. (In the usually emotionally charged atmosphere, there may be considerable disagreement and conflict among the members about roles and duties.)
3. Norming. Finally, in this stage the members begin to settle into cooperation and collaboration. They have a “we” feeling with high cohesion, group identity, and camaraderie.
4. Performing. This is the stage where the group is fully functioning and devoted to effectively accomplishing the tasks agreed upon in the norming stage.
5. Adjourning. This represents the end of the group, which in ongoing, permanent groups will never be reached. However, for project teams or task forces with a specific objective, once the objective is accomplished, the group will disband or have a new composition, and the stages will start over again.
PRACTICALITIES OF GROUP FORMATION
Besides the conceptual explanations for group formation and development, there are some very practical reasons for joining and/or forming a group. For instance, employees in an organization may form a group for economic, security, or social reasons. Economically, workers may form a group to work on a project that is paid for on a group-incentive plan such as gainsharing, or they may form a union to demand higher wages. For security, joining a group provides the individual with a united front in combating indiscriminant, unilateral treatment. The adage that there is strength in numbers applies in this case. The most important reason individuals join or form groups is, however, that groups tend to satisfy the very intense social needs of most people. Workers, in particular, generally have a very strong desire for affiliation. This need is met by belonging to a group or becoming a member of a team.
TYPES OF GROUPS
Groups may be classified into different types. The basis of differentiation may be purpose, extent of structuring, process of formation, and size of the group membership. However, an analytical classification of the group may be: formal and informal, primary and secondary, membership and reference, command and task, and in-group and out-group. Each type has different features and different effects on its participants. Their importance in the organization, brief description of other classifications is given here:
1. Primary and Secondary Groups. A primary group is characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation. The membership of such a group is small and is based on intimate relationship. Examples of such groups may be families, friendship groups, or neighbourhood groups. A secondary group is more formal, general, and remote. The members of the secondary group may not have any interest in the problems and pleasures of others. The continuous interaction, intimacy, face-to-face interaction, cooperation, and association of primary groups may not be found in secondary groups.
Two examples of a primary group are the family and the peer group. Initially the primary group was limited to a socializing group, but then a broader conception was given impetus by the results of the Hawthrone studies. Work groups definitely have primary group qualities. Research findings point out the tremendous impact that the primary group has on individual behavior, regardless of context or environmental conditions. An increasing number of companies, such as General Mills, Federal Express and 3M,have begun to use the power of primary groups by organizing employees into self managed teams. Importantly, these teams are natural work groups with all the dynamics described so far. The team members’ work together to perform a function or produce a product or service. Since they are self-managing, they also perform functions such as planning, organizing, and controlling the work.
2. Membership and Reference Groups. A membership group is one to which an individual really belongs while a reference group is one with which the individual identifies or to which he would like to belong. In fact, an individual may be member of several groups at a time but he may not participate actively in all such groups; he would like to participate in that whose norms are more attractive and gratifying. The attractiveness of the reference group makes the norms of that group more attractive to the individual who aspires to it and its norms will, therefore, become more influential in determining behaviour. The reference groups have more relevance to organizational behaviour.
3. Command and Task Groups. A command group is composed of the subordinates who report directly to a common superior. This type of group is determined by organization chart. Examples of such a group may be a production manager and his subordinates in his department, a college principal and teachers, and so on. A task group is usually formed to solve a problem or perform an activity that involves a number of organizational units. Thus, membership of the task group may extend beyond the hierarchical command of a superior.
4. In-Groups and Out-Groups. The in-group represents a clustering of individuals holding prevailing values in a society or, at least, having a dominant place in social functioning. It can be a majority numerically, or it may represent the power structure with its pattern of behaviour considered desirable. The out-group is the conglomerate looked up as subordinate or marginal in the society; it is usually referred to as the minority group even though in certain instances, it may represent a numerical majority.
FORMAL GROUP
CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMAL GROUP
• Organization structure is laid down by the top management to achieve organizational goals.
• Organization structure is based on division of labour and specialization to achieve efficiency in the operations.
• Organization structure concentrates on the jobs to be performed and not the individuals who are to perform these jobs.
• The organization does not take into consideration the sentiments of organizational members.
• The authority and responsibility relationships created by the organization structure are to be honoured by everyone. The position in the organization hierarchy determines the relative status of the incumbent.
MERITS OF FORMAL GROUPS
Combined of Formal Group
To speak optimistically, one would say that committee members bring with them a wide range of experience, knowledge, ability, and personality characteristics. This agglomeration lends itself to the tremendous amount of diverse knowledge that is required to solve modern organizational problems.
Help To Reduce Conflict
Committees can be a very effective organizational device to help reduce conflict and promote coordination between departments and specialized subunits. Through committee discussion, each person can empathize with the others purposes and problems. In effect, committees foster horizontal communication.
Increase Motivation and Commitment
The biggest advantage of formal groups may be the increased motivation and commitment derived from participation. By being involved in the analysis and solution of committee problems, individual members will more readily accept and try to implement what has been decided. A formal group can also be instrumental in human development and growth. Group members, especially the young and inexperienced, can take advantage of observing and learning from other members with much experience or with different view points and knowledge. A group provides the opportunity for personal development that individuals would never receive on their own.
DEMERITS OF FORMAL GROUPS
Time Consuming and Costly
One very practical disadvantage is that formal groups are indeed time-consuming and costly.
No Individual Responsibility
The major problem is divided responsibility. In a group there is group or corporate but no individual responsibility or accountability. Thus, critics argue the groups in reality turns out to have no responsibility or accountability. In fact, individuals may use the formal groups as a shield to avoid personal responsibility for bad decisions or mistakes. One solution to this problem is to make all group members responsible, and another is to hold the chairperson responsible. Both approaches have many difficulties. For example, if the entire group is held responsible for a wrong decision, what about the individual members who voted against the majority? Holding them accountable for the groups decision cold have disastrous effect on their morale, but holding only those who voted for a particular decision responsible would create an inhibiting effect that would destroy the value of group action.
Difficulty in Decision Making
Besides being time-consuming and costly and having divided responsibility, groups may reach decisions that are products of excessive compromise, logrolling, and one-person or minority domination. The joke that the camel is a horse designed by a group underscores this limitation. It represents the reverse of the advantages of integrated group judgment and the pooling of specialized knowledge. Where unanimity is either formally required or an informal group norm, the difficulties are compounded. The final decision may be so extremely watered down or “compromised to death” that the horse actually does turn out to be a camel.
THE DYNAMICS OF INFORMAL GROUPS
Informal groups play a significant role in the dynamics of organizational behavior. The major difference between formal and informal groups is that the formal group has officially prescribed goals and relationships, whereas the informal one does not. Despite this distinction, it is a mistake to think of formal and informal groups as two distinctly separate entities. The two types of groups coexist and are inseparable. Every formal organization has informal groups, and every informal organization eventually evolves some semblance of formal groups.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMAL GROUPS
• Informal relations are unplanned. They arise spontaneously.
• Formation of informal group is a natural process.
• Informal group reflects human relationships.
• Informal groups are based on common taste, problems, language, religion, culture, etc.
• The membership of informal organization is voluntary. At the same time, a person may be a member of a number of informal groups. Thus there can be overlapping in these groups.
NORMS AND ROLES IN INFORMAL GROUPS
With the exception of a single social act such as extending a hand upon meeting, the smallest units of analysis in group dynamics are norms and roles. Many behavioral scientists make a point of distinguishing between the two units, but conceptually they are very similar. Norms are the “oughts” of behavior. They are prescriptions for acceptable behavior determined by the group. Norms will be strongly enforced by work groups if they:
• Aid in group survival and provision of benefits.
• Simplify or make predictable the behavior expected of group members.
• Help the group avoid embarrassing interpersonal problems.
• Express the central values or the goals of the group and clarify what is distinctive about the group’s identity.
INFORMAL ROLES
There is increasing recognition given to the informal team member roles. Here is summary of four of such roles:
Contributor: This task-oriented team member is seen as very dependable. He or she enjoys providing the team with good technical information and data, is always prepared, and pushes the team to set high performance goals.
Collaborator: This team member focuses on the “big picture”. He/She tries to remind others of the vision, mission, or goal of the team but is flexible and open to new ideas, is willing to work outside the defined role, and is willing to share the glory with other team members.
Communicator: This positive, people oriented team member is process-driven and is an effective listener. He or she plays the role of facilitator of involvement, conflict resolution, consensus building, feedback, and building an informal relaxed atmosphere.
Challenger: Known for candor and openness, this member questions the team’s goals, methods and even ethics. He/She is willing to disagree with the leader or the higher authority and encourages well-conceived risk taking.
MERITS OF INFORMAL GROUPS
1. Effective System
The informal group perpetuates cultural values which the group holds as important. This function helps to preserve the group integrity. People who work together naturally adopt common points of view that everyone is expected to share. The individuals become wedded to the group as a result of constant association and socializing process. In fact, the basic reason in the creation of informal group is the group values which every member pursues.
2. Lighter Work Load
Informal group provides social satisfaction by providing status, recognition, and further opportunity to relate to others. Many jobs which appear superficially dull and routine, are made more interesting by the individual ingenuity. Management defines a rigid series of job requirements but work-groups provide a setting which spurts an individual to modify the job situation more to his own liking. Thus, the job becomes more interesting and satisfying.
3. Bunch of Abilities
Informal group helps in solving the work problems of members. It carries out its tasks effectively through the help of other members, group-decisions, and sharing job knowledge. The group’s solution to a problem may differ from what management expects and it may be even more effective because red-tape is eliminated; short-cuts are evolved; informal channel of communication is evolved to cut across departmental boundaries. In fact, where the technology imposes extreme interdependence, and precise, and instant coordination is required, the organization depends on the group to control and specify the individuals contribution to the total effort. All this contribute to the effective performance of work.
4. Safety Valve
Group helps to protect its members from outside pressure. Probably the most important group standards are those that protect the groups against real or imagined outside dangers, particularly from upper management. Dynamic organizations have a tendency to introduce change in work methods and routines at a faster rate than individuals can adjust to them. The place at which these changes are introduced can be materially altered by a determined work group.
5. Better Communication
Informal group acts to fill up the communication gaps of its members. In order to meet the communication needs of its members, it develops systems and channels of communication. Such systems and channels cut across the hierarchical and departmental boundaries and transmit information much quickly.
Because of the inevitability and power of the informal group, the functions should be exploited in the attainment of objectives rather than futilely combated by management.
“Informal social networks exert an immense influence which sometimes overrides the formal hierarchy….. leadership goes beyond a person’s formal position into realms of informal, hidden or unauthorized influence.”
DEMERITS OF INFORMAL GROUPS
Role Conflict
Since informal organisations try to meet the social needs of their members, there is a natural tendency to produce role conflict. An individual perceives roe conflict when he has to fulfill conflicting requirements of both his group as well as of organization as a whole. Such a conflict may be dysfunctional from organisation’s point of view. Much of the role conflict can be avoided by carefully cultivating mutual interests with informal groups. The more the interests, goals, methods, and evaluation system of formal and informal organisations can be integrated, the more productivity and satisfaction can be expected.
Lack of Conformity
The informal groups exert strong pressures for conformity. When conformity is mentioned, a person usually thinks of an autocratic boss and organizational rules. The members identify so much with the informal group that it becomes a part of their everyday life. Accordingly, they hardly realize the powerful pressures which it exerts to get them to conform to its code of conduct. The conformity to informal group implies that members become subject to willful control of an informal leader wields group power without the official controls, weight of responsibility, and public regulations that formal leader has. In this way, the informal group can become an instrument of neurotic source of conflict or non-responsible rabble using the group for their own selfish ends.
Resistance to Change
Most dynamic organisations want change in work methods and routines; informal groups have tendency to perpetuate the status quo. Each group tries to maintain equilibrium. In trying to maintain equilibrium, a group develops responses to return to its perceived best way of life whenever any change occurs. Though people perceive the outcome of a change individually if the outcome of change is precise and definite, often, they show their reaction in group, and since informal groups are bound by convention, custom, and culture, often they resist any change.
Rumour
Rumour is a phenomenon of social communication that supplements the transmission of information through formal communication. Rumour is a specific proposition for belief, passed from person to person, usually by words of mouth, without secured standards of evidence being present. Rumour deals with temporary events in a way that implies that whatever is said is true even though there is not much information to support it. The basic reason for the circulation of rumours is ambiguous circumstances and relieving of emotional tensions felt by people in those ambiguous situations. Since most of the time rumours carry false information, they become detrimental to organizational functioning. The best course of action to deal with rumours is the identification of their source and cause. Getting at cause is wise use of the preventive approach, instead of a tardy curative approach. When people feel secured, understand the things that matter to them, and feel on the team, there are few rumours because there is very little ambiguity in the situation.
